This presentation has pointed out that it is very difficult to make risk estimates based on human epidemiological data alone and demonstrated that the uncertainty associated with the risk estimates after low doses is high. It has further demonstrated that by combining modern technology, biology and genomics it has been possible to conduct studies and make measurements following exposure to very low doses. Such studies were not possible in the past. This program has focused on the effects of very low doses of radiation and has resulted in the need for the radiation biology community to re-evaluate some of accepted radiation paradigms. The program is not designed to alter radiation standards but to provide a scientific basis on which they can be better set. Such a scientific basis will help ensure that the standards are adequate and appropriate.